Last time, if you'll recall, we learned what beatitudes are ("great blessings") and read the first one. We also considered some of the apocryphal or non-canonical gospels that would have been in circulation in 250 AD. We are chasing down the truth about the formation of the New Testament canon in response to something a friend of mine said a few weeks back. I'd asked him if the words of Jesus weren't of prime importance compared to all other New Testament scripture. He'd answered emphatically "no," because "the whole New Testament was dictated by God and was thus all equally important."
Sadly, with my friend, I have to disagree.
The fact is that The New Testament wasn't a well solidified and widely used set of texts until centuries after Jesus' death. In the first few centuries, Christians produced an abundance of Christian literature. Much of that literature is universally accepted as having been forged or written pseudepigraphically. All of the copy was handwritten copies of handwritten copies. The scriptures the first Christians used varied from locale to locale, and were far more numerous than the books of the New Testament canon. The New Testament was selected from a large, varied, and historically dubious pool of texts.
All of the books of the New Testament were written by men, and none of them were written by men who actually knew Jesus Christ personally.
Today, we're going to continue our introductory study of New Testament apocrypha with some significant alternative ancient epistles and acts of the apostles. We will also read the second Beatitude. Forgive me if I am brief today. Work has still been hectic, so my writing time continues to be compromised.
Enjoy.
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What Did Origen Leave Out (If Rufinus Can Be Trusted)
Part II
As we've said already, it is possible that Origen of Alexandria was the first man to ever write down what we know as the 27-book list of the New Testament canon. Origen had been a Christian scholar since youth, was imprisoned for his faith, and came to be known as a Church Father. It is rumored through history that Origen had had himself surgically castrated for the sake of holiness. He was in interesting character. Much scholarship about early Christianity is owed directly to Origen.
Last time, we reviewed alternative gospels that would have been available to Origen around 250 AD, the approximate year he would have written his 27-book list. Today, we're going to highlight a few of the alternative epistles and acts of the apostles that would have been available to Origen in his study in Alexandria.
First, the epistles, or "letters."
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Epistles
The Epistle of Barnabas, written between 70 and 132 AD
The Epistle of Barnabas is a letter preserved from ancient times that was often attributed to Barnabas, the travelling companion of Luke. Modern scholars do not believe that this epistle was written by Luke's Barnabas, the man who accompanied him to Cyprus and elsewhere, but think that it could have been written by another unknown Barnabas.
The text contains a treatise on the Old Testament as harbinger of Christ. It negates significant swaths of Jewish tradition in its interpretation of the Old Testament through Christian eyes. Bible scholar Bart D. Ehrman said that the Epistle of Barnabas is "more anti-Jewish than anything that did make it into the New Testament." The last few chapters of the epistle are an explanation of the "Two-Ways," which was a kind of teaching tool for people who were becoming Christian. The Two-Ways material lays out Christian behavioral codes, for example:
19:3 Thou shalt not exalt thyself, but shalt be lowly minded in allThe humility prescribed here is attractive.
things. Thou shalt not assume glory to thyself. Thou shalt not
entertain a wicked design against thy neighbor; thou shalt not admit
boldness into thy soul.
The First Epistle of Clement, written in the late 1st century
The First Epistle of Clement is one of the oldest known Christian texts that isn't in the New Testament canon. It is traditionally attributed to a man named Clement of Rome, whom the Catholic Church claims was a Pope. Monarchical bishoprics didn't exist at that time yet, though, which makes Clement's Popehood impossible.
The Epistle was written to the church community in Corinth in response to their having recently deposed some of their church elders from their positions of authority. The letter implores the community to restore the leaders to their positions of power.
This epistle was read aloud in Corinth from time to time for perhaps centuries, but was then lost to history for a period before its rediscovery in the 17th century.
The Epistle to Seneca the Younger, written in the 4th century
The Epistle to Secenca the Younger is a series of correspondence between the Apostle Paul and the ancient Roman stoic philosopher Lucius Annaeus Seneca. The body of work, in total, contains eight letters from Seneca and six replies from Paul. For centuries, they were accepted as legitimate, but today they are universally regarded to be forgeries.
Here is an example of one of the letters that this pseudo-Seneca wrote to this pseudo-Paul:
I know that you are not so much disturbed on your own account by my letter to you on the showing of your letters to Caesar, as by the nature of things, which so calls away the minds of men from all right learning and conduct -so that I am not surprised, for I have learnt this for certain by many examples. Let us then act differently, and if in the past anything has been done carelessly, you will pardon it. I have sent you a book on elegance of expression (store of words). Farewell, dearest Paul.Modern Bible scholars will point out the relative "poverty of thought and style" in this text, compared to Paul and Seneca's actual writings. While this one wouldn't have been sitting on Origen's bookshelf in 250 AD, I still thought its mention here necessary, because I like the stoics.
The Letter to the Smyrnaeans*, written c. 107 AD
Unlike the letters between Paul and Seneca, The Letter to the Smyrnaeans very well could have been on Origen's bookshelf. Written by Ignatius of Antioch, The Letter to the Smyrnaeans is a polemic against docetism, which had apparently crept up in Smyrna. Remember, docetism is the belief that Christ did not suffer or die in a real physical way. The docetic Jesus appears to suffer and die, but does neither.
The Letter to the Smyrnaeans is special in that it is the first recorded use of the term "Catholic Church" that historians know of. Check out the paragraph in question:
See that you all follow the bishop, even as Jesus Christ does the Father, and the presbytery as you would the apostles; and reverence the deacons, as being the institution of God. Let no man do anything connected with the Church without the bishop. Let that be deemed a proper Eucharist, which is [administered] either by the bishop, or by one to whom he has entrusted it. Wherever the bishop shall appear, there let the multitude [of the people] also be; even as, wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic Church. It is not lawful without the bishop either to baptize or to celebrate a love-feast; but whatsoever he shall approve of, that is also pleasing to God, so that everything that is done may be secure and valid.Also of interest here is the mention of love-feasts, which are also known as agape-feasts, which are just a large communal meal among Christians. Given its historicity and interesting subject matter, we will certainly be studying The Letter to the Smyrnaeans in more depth at a later date.
The Letter to the Trallians, written in the early 2nd century
The Letter to the Trallians is another letter by Ignatius of Antioch, this time addressed to the church in Tralles, in what is modern Turkey. Interesting about the letter is that it was written during the last period of Ignatius' life, when he was in custody of the Roman authorities and en route to Rome to be executed by being fed alive to hungry lions. Interesting about him being fed to the lions is that Ignatius himself had predicted that he would be thrown to the beasts.
The Trallians had sent their bishop to see and comfort Ignatius on his journey to death, and the letter was written back to the community by Ignatius in thanks.
Here, from the letter, Ignatius speaks on his personal humility:
I have great knowledge in God, but I restrain myself, lest, I should perish through boasting. For now it is needful for me to be the more fearful; and not give heed to those that puff me up. For they that speak to me [in the way of commendation] scourge me. For I do indeed desire to suffer, but I know not if I be worthy to do so. For this longing, though it is not manifest to many, all the more vehemently assails me. I therefore have need of meekness, by which the prince of this world is brought to nought.
Acts of the Apostles
Acts of Andrew, written in the mid 2nd century
The Acts of Andrew is the earliest writing we have about the acts and miracles of the Apostle Andrew. The text is noted for its serene tone, and for its lack of awareness of any kind of heterodoxy within the larger church.
The Acts of Andrew describes incredible, over-the-top miracles being worked, such as the calming of storms, survival amongst hungry predator animals, and defeating entire armies single-handedly.
The Acts of Andrew also contain an amount of moralizing, for instance when Andrew tells a woman that her illegitimate child will be "born dead:"
A woman, Calliopa, married to a murderer, had an illegitimate child and suffered in travail. She told her sister to call on Diana for help; when she did so the devil appeared to her at night and said: 'Why do you trouble me with vain prayers? Go to Andrew in Achaia.' She came, and he accompanied her to Corinth, Lesbius with him. Andrew said to Calliopa: 'You deserve to suffer for your evil life: but believe in Christ, and you will be relieved, but the child will be born dead.' And so it was.Woah.
While being crucified at the end of the text, Andrew is miraculously still able to give three days worth of sermons from the cross before expiring.
Acts of Paul and Thecla, written in the mid 2nd century
The Acts of Paul and Thecla is noteworthy because of its treatment of women. In the Acts of Paul and Thecla, a young virgin hears Paul preaching about celibacy and salvation and determines to be celibate. This upsets her fiance and mother, who conspire to have Paul scourged and kicked out of town, while the girl is to be burned alive. In the text, God comes down with a storm to save the girl from being burned.
Paul and Thecla escape and travel off together. Along the way, they meet a man who wants to buy Thecla. Paul says he doesn't know the girl, and the man tries to take her by force. She is arrested for assaulting the man, and sentenced to death. The women of the city protest as Thecla is stripped naked and thrown to the lions. When the beasts attack, however, a particular lioness defends Thecla, and then a series of miracles see her the rest of the way through the ordeal. Eventually, the women of the city rescue Thecla and she is returned to Paul.
This text has been derided often over the centuries for its positive take on womanhood.
Acts of Peter, written in the mid 2nd century
The Acts of Peter, regarding the actions and miracles of St. Peter after the time of Jesus, is one of the earliest acts of the apostles texts.
There is a tradition that Peter, when he was crucified in Rome, requested to be crucified upside down, because he did not feel worthy to be crucified the same as Jesus had been. The executioners are said to have obliged. The very first mention historians have of this tradition is found here in The Acts of Peter.
The Acts of Peter is also notable for a sort of "miracle contest" between Peter and a man named Simon Magus, described as an "angel of Satan." Peter and Magus both basically claim that the other is performing magic to trick their respective followers, and they decide on a miracle contest. At the culmination of the contest, Simon Magus makes himself levitate into the air in the town forum. Peter appeals to God that the levitation be interrupted. Sure enough, Magus falls to the ground and breaks his leg in three places. The crowd is convinced that he is a trickster-magician, and they stone him.
Later on, Magus dies, apparently while undergoing an ancient form of surgery to fix the leg. We will revisit this text for certain.
Acts of John, written primarily in the 2nd century
The Acts of John is a series of texts, not all of which were originally authored at the same time or by the same person, regarding the actions and miracles of John the Apostle after Jesus' time. Dating is difficult, because most of our extant manuscripts are far older than the originals they were based on.
In the Acts of John, John raises an old man from the dead. The passage is somewhat humorous in that the old man doesn't seem to appreciate having been risen from the dead, on account of his son, who had made his life difficult. Read for yourself:
...he came near to the old man and said: My Lord will not be weak to spread out his kind pity and his condescending mercy even unto thee: rise up therefore and give glory to God for the work that is come to pass at this moment. And the old man said: I arise, Lord. And he rose and sat up and said: I was released from a terrible life and had to bear the insults of my son, dreadful and many, and his want of natural affection, and to what end hast thou called me back, O man of the living God? (And John answered him: If) thou art raised only for the same end, it were better for thee to die; but raise thyself unto better things. And he took him and led him into the city, preaching unto him the grace of God, so that before he entered the gate the old man believed.
"To what end hast thou called me back?" he asks.
Funniest thing to say after being resurrected.
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The list of known New Testament apocrypha is much longer than what we have covered in two brief sessions here. This accounting of some of the apocrypha has been made with the goal of showing that points-of-view about Jesus, Christian cosmology, and the lives of Jesus' apostles were myriad and varied by the second century, and would have been even more so in 250 AD when the very first 27-book list of the New Testament may have been composed.
Most of the apocrypha is impossible to trace back to its original author, just like most of the canon.
Ultimately, we can know painfully little about why, exactly, some material became canon and some did not. We do know that all of the books of the New Testament were traditionally attributed to Apostles, so "apostolic origin" is likely one of the criteria that was used. It is also true that a text would have been more likely to be elected canon if it were widely accepted by various church communities; controversial texts of the time would have been excluded. The texts that are included are also all very early when compared to even the earliest apocrypha, so ancient textual dating may have also been a criterion.
Not much else is known about the canon criteria. What we do know for certain is that the canon was selected by humans from texts written by humans.
For those of us seeking the true Moral Vision of Jesus Christ, all of the ancient texts on Jesus, apocryphal or not, bear some study. We must, however, remain willing to logically qualify all of these texts, taking nothing for granted as we search for the morality of the historical Jesus.
We will begin to circle back to our original point, which is that the Synoptic Gospels are the most important texts we have about Jesus' life and morality, and take primacy over all other Christian texts. To get there, we first need to thoroughly understand the fact that early Christian texts, even those found in the New Testament canon, contradict one another in many ways. Next time, we will showcase some of the more blatant contradictions we find in the New Testament.
For now, let's get back to our gospel reading.
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Matthew 5:4
4 Blessed are they who mourn,
for they will be comforted.
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Recall that last time we read the first Beatitude, of which there are eight. The Beatitudes are a series of blessings that Jesus offers to his followers at the very outset of his Galilean ministry.
The blessings given here by Jesus are specific. In the First Beatitude, Jesus blesses the poor. In blessing the poor, he excludes the wealthy. The Beatitudes seem sometimes to be Jesus' way of letting the people know which among them are living righteously, and which are living outside of righteousness.
I imagine that perhaps he offers these blessings in response to the nagging questioning of his followers. Perhaps, convinced of his wisdom or holiness, the people appealed to Jesus: "tell us, sir, who among us is most righteous?" We certainly see his apostles behaving in a similar way later on. Perhaps thus, Jesus was prompted to sit down and list these blessings.
He has told the people that the poor are blessed, and he has excluded the wealthy from blessing. Now, he tells the people that those who mourn are blessed, for they will be comforted. Those who do not mourn are excluded from this blessing. The meaning of this blessing is somewhat more elusive than that of the first.
Can one be in constant mourning? When we consider the mortality rate of babies, mothers, and humans in general in the first century, it is possible that many people did spend most of their lives in constant mourning. Could it be, then, that when Jesus looked at his followers and saw how many of them were currently bereft of loved ones, he offered them this second beatitude as a situational comfort?
Perhaps Jesus is blessing the naturally somber ones among humanity, those who carry a sober melancholy with them at all times, as if they are in constant mourning for the world itself.
Like much of the gospel, it is easier here to know what Jesus is not saying than what he is saying. For now, we'll just count "mourning" in the "positive" column.
We will continue taking these at a slow pace next time. Until then, happy living to you. Thank you for reading.
Love
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* That's fun to say for some reason. Smyrnaeans. Smyrnaeans.
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To read what's next, click here.
* That's fun to say for some reason. Smyrnaeans. Smyrnaeans.
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To read what's next, click here.
To read what came prior to this, click here.
For the index of Christ's words, click here.
